How To Measure Soil Resistivity

| Style of temple architecture inward Java  8-15 M (Part I) | The temple is genuinely i of the buildings keagaamaan only ever used in i trial when Hindu-Buddhist faith spread embraced ancient Javanese society. Based on the bear witness tin live seen that the evolution of Hindu-Buddhist civilisation inward Java century lasted almost 8-15 M. In pembabakan history of Javanese culture, this fourth dimension called the Classical era.

Named to the Classical era because of the 3 parameters, namely: Hindu-Buddhist Period is the menses of cultural evolution of important milestones that were non previously known inward this era, such every bit the alphabet, the violet system, monumental architecture, art, the organisation of the region, as well as more. The results of the cultural achievements that proceed to stay unknown until at nowadays as well as tin live used every bit a reference for the evolution of contemporary society. For instance the utilisation of ancient Javanese linguistic communication that refers to the Sanskrit language, the stories of Mahabharata as well as Ramayana, the hero concept, the concept of a goodness ruler, ideal woman, prosperous society, as well as others.

Through penelisikan artefaktualnya bear witness against the Hindu-Buddhist era inward Java is divided into 2 periods, namely (a) Classical Old historic menses (century AD 80-10), as well as (b) Young Classical era (Century 11-15 M). Classical Age Old grow inward areas of fundamental Java, along with the evolution pump of the kingdom inward the region. Kingdom is known inward those days was the upper-case missive of the alphabet of Ancient Mataram motion initially inward Mdang i Poh Pitu, as well as so moved to Mdang Watu Galuh i, as well as i Mdang Mamratipura. The Young Classical era. Ancient Kingdom of Mataram dynasty Sailendra oft associated with the Mahayana Buddhist, but at that spot are also alongside scholars who claim that the kingdom was ruled past times Rex Sanjaya offspring ("Sanjayavamsa") who embraced Hinduism. The latest theory states that ancient Mataram controlled past times members Sailendravamsa, alongside its members some Mahayana Buddhists as well as others who embraced the Hindu-Saiva.

In almost the tenth century AD, Wawa kings of Old Mataram kings to motion the seat of eastern Java, the argue for the motion was however a trouble organisation to experts as well as at that spot has been no discussion broke upwards mutually acceptable. The hypothesis has been position forrad past times experts, some receive got claimed that the motion was because of the plague, the people who fled to eastern Java because kings ruled with a vicious period, displacement was triggered because of an assail of Srivijaya, natural disasters caused past times the eruption Mount Merapi, every bit good every bit a novel explanation stating that the transfer of the upper-case missive of the alphabet was genuinely looking for a to a greater extent than ideal Mahameru inward East Java (Munandar 2004).

Then farther developed kingdoms inward East Java, showtime with the reign of Pu Sindok Isananya dynasty. In Airlangga reign (1019-1042 AD) the upper-case missive of the alphabet of the Mataram kingdom inward Wwatan Mas (the 11th century AD) was forced to split into two: Janggala (Kahuripan) as well as Panjalu (Kadiri) are thousands of cities inward Daha. Kadiri kingdom which is as well as so farther role inward history throughout the twelfth century AD Following the violet Singhasari that develops betwixt the twelvemonth 1222-1292 AD which was built past times Ken Angrok. Due to the attacks of Glang-glang Jayakatwang ruler against the Rex lastly Singhasari, namely Krtanagara (1268-1292), the kingdom is crumbling, as well as and so through a long combat Krtarajasa Jayawarddhana (Raden Wijaya) Wilwatikta stand. In Rajasanagara reign (1350-1389 AD) Majapahit ruler transformed into the archipelago, Majapahit was the lastly Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms inward Java, developed for almost 200 years (1293-1521 AD).

Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms that developed inward Java as well as perish beyond the centuries at that spot are many to travel out "tracks", but at that spot are also a few receive got the archeological record. Ancient Mataram Kingdom, Singhasari as well as Majapahit, including a lot of passing diverse Hindu as well as Buddhist religious monument. Such monuments are of trouble organisation inward this written report is the temple which is i of the of import religious monuments. Together with the temple at that spot are other monuments are considered sacred petirthaan (patirthan), cave hermitage, as well as the altar persajian only a limited number. Therefore, the temple remains the discipline of interesting written report because they were many as well as receive got unikum architecture, the temple volition never live finished discussed from diverse aspects, i aspect is the manner of architecture.

Borobudur viewed from the northwest corner of the yard

Soekmono R. (1997) an goodness on Republic of Indonesia enshrinement never held a brief review of edifice temples inward Java, it is stated that the edifice of the temple inward Java has 2 styles, namely Idioms Idioms Central Java as well as East Java. According Idioms of Central Java, alongside others, receive got the next of import features: (a) the shape of fatty building, (b) the roof terraces, steps, (c) wicket doors as well as niches decorated with Kala-Makara, (d) arise rather high reliefs as well as paintings naturalist, as well as (e) the location of the temple inward the middle of the page.

The temples characteristic of East Java Idioms are of import are: (a) Temple Brahu, slender shape of the building, (b) the roof is a combination of levels, (c) Makara does non exist, as well as the doors as well as niches only higher upwards threshold are given a caput of Kala, (d) arises a piffling relief as well as symbolic paintings resemble leather puppets, as well as (e) lies the temple of the dorsum page (Soekmono 1997: 86).

Similarly of import traits expressed past times Soekmono other characteristics also the rattling relative nature due regard to the administration toward the edifice as well as materials used. As an initial written report Soekmono sentiment that it is of import to base of operations the side past times side solid set down when almost to examine the architectural manner of edifice temples inward Java. Actually, every grain traits that receive got been position forrad past times Soekmono live explained farther that it becomes sharper understanding. For instance portly shape of the edifice owned past times the temples of Central Java Idioms, the impression that occur due to the pes of the temple flooring where people walk around receive got a broad space, with the other price receive got a broad pradaksinapatha. Form of fatty also occurs every bit a consequence of edifice the roof temple inward Central Java Idioms are non high, the roof is terraced, as well as only amounted to 3 levels including kemuncaknya. Compared with the divulge of temples inward East Java Idioms roof over 3 levels as well as each degree gradually decreases until the peak, every bit good every bit narrow pradaksinapathanya only check for i someone only, thus the impression of a slim-shaped building.

More detailed explanations are also possible inward price of caput of Kala, but paired with a makara (mythical creatures were a combination of elephant as well as fish, [gajamina]), to a greater extent than oft than non Kala on the temples of Java was described without the lower jaw (no chin), oft also create non receive got a brace of claws, as well as the impressive confront of a Panthera leo symbol of the victory of the confront (kirttimukha). While Kala inward the temples of East Java Idioms illustrated past times having the lower jaw (chin), clearly has a brace of claws on either side of her caput inward the feel of evil that threatens to disrupt the sanctity of the temple, the temple several times Singhasari as well as Majapahit Kala heads fitted a brace of horns as well as a brace of fangs protruding from his left cheek as well as right. When no longer paired with Makara frame, but with a serpent or dragon that is placed on the correct as well as left side of Kala. In the depiction of relief Kala akin to a brace of deer's caput (mrga) facing outwards. In the terminate the impression is obtained if the notice Kala temples of East Java is a giant head, instead of a lion's face. In price of sculpting reliefs that decorate the walls of the temple, if listened to carefully at that spot is a divergence inward to a greater extent than item again. Indeed, inward principle, inward the temples of Central Java Idioms high relief carving as well as are naturalists, but at that spot are a divulge of other characteristics that are to a greater extent than specific.

Thus, if the characteristics described inward total reliefs inward the temples of Central Java are:

1. High relief carving
2. Naturalistic depiction of nature
3. The thickness of ½ to ¾ of sculpture media (stone blocks)
4. There are areas left blank on the panel
5. Human figures as well as animals confront directed towards the observer (enface)
6. The story comes from the literature reference India
7. The topic of the story is to a greater extent than oft than non the epic (epic)
8. Fully sculpted scenes stories from showtime to end.
9. Regarding the characteristics of the depiction on the reliefs of the temples of East Java Idioms are:
10. Low relief carving
11. The depiction of symbolic figures, human figures such every bit shadow puppets
12. Inscribed only on ¼-media thickness (stone / brick)
13. Entire panels filled with diverse decorations, such every bit at that spot is "fear of an empty field".
14. Human figures as well as animals directed his confront to the side facing
15. Reference story of Old Javanese literature, inward add-on to several adaptations of literary industrial plant of India.
16. The topic is to a greater extent than oft than non romantic story (about love)
17. Relief stories are fragmentary, incomplete only sure as shooting episodes from the consummate story (Munandar 2003: 28-29).

In this lies the principal temple complex inward an enshrinement, Soekmono stated that the principal temple edifice on the Idioms of Central Java was located inward the pump of the page, patch the principal temple buildings inward the complex with the enshrinement of East Java Idioms located inward the courtyard at the rear. Soekmono explains:

"The edifice of the temple should live presented that the temple Roro Jonggrang wants all your attending to the pump pulled toward the sky (the location of sky where dwell the gods), patch the Temple Panataran requires the deployment of see horizontally (which is genuinely a apartment projection of a vertical arrangement) with the aim of directing attending to the location of ancestors inward the mountains "(Soekmono 1986: 237). Actually indirectly Soekmono has explained the dissimilar functions betwixt the edifice of temples inward the Old Classics, founded inward fundamental Java as well as the temples of the Classical Youth inward East Java. That edifice temples of the Classical Old established for the purpose of the rites of worship to the gods, patch the temples inward the Classical era, particularly Young as well as Majapahit Singhasari intends to dedicated to the worship of ancestors has diperdewa. Then the edifice of the temple is clearly a religious monument is sacred because diperuntuk every bit a medium to "communicate" with the Supernatural (superhuman Beings).

As a sacred temple buildings is non strictly follow the religious rules, pregnant that non every edifice the temple should live established uniformly. These buildings receive got a shape dissimilar architectures, although having the same religious background. Being dissimilar architecture that is of involvement to live discussed further, because of these differences genuinely betoken the presence of distinctiveness. It is thus ordinarily touted that the edifice of the temple has features that are non found inward other temples. For instance privilege Bima Temple inward Dieng is the roof, the roof is decorated with forms such every bit fruit keben (amalaka) oeleh depressed as well as thus flattened his form. Another temple has some other characteristic as well as so every temple has its ain privileges.

Based on architectural form, the actual temples inward fundamental Java percentage tin live divided into 2 kinds of religious styles berlatarbelakangkan breath, ie (1) Hindu temples-Saiva as well as (2) Bauddha temples. Although inward regulation the temples that receive got similarities, but at that spot are many differences too interesting to live discussed further. Similarities betwixt edifice Hindu temples-Saiva as well as Bauddha inward Central Java that was established betwixt the century-80-10 M include:

• generally receive got a foundation inward the shape of pitting
• vertically composed of 3 parts, namely, legs, body, as well as the roof of the building
• has a principal room inward the middle of the building
• equipped with a divulge of niches that are sometimes enlarged into space
• staircase-shaped cheek curls weak
• there is a combined frames lotus, half-circle, as well as the average
• ornament is a ornament which has ever been known Kala as well as Makara.

Some similarities tin live found either inward the temples of Hindu or Buddhist, every bit if it has been a characteristic of the architecture for edifice the temple at whatsoever time. As an instance inward dot b, both the Hindu or Buddhist temple vertical partitioning could ever live found, namely (1) the being of the foundation as well as base of operations of the temple inward Hinduism is a symbol of nature Bhurloka, inward Buddhist temples of this department is seen every bit a reflection layer Kamadhatu life. (2) The trunk of the temple where bersemayamnya goodness god statues inward the middle bedroom (primary) or recesses (parsvadewata) inward Hinduism is a symbol of globe Bhuvarloka, whereas inward Buddhism tin live viewed every bit a reflection of Rupadhatu walks of life, as well as ( 3) Svarloka roof of the temple is a symbol inward Hinduism, which is the natural life of the gods.

As for the roof is a symbol of Buddhism Arupadhatu, an atmosphere without whatsoever form, completely empty (sunyata). So based on the architecture partitioning vertically either Hindu or Buddhist temples layer 3 represents the actual world, the world's ugliness, the globe is quite good, as well as virtue the globe completely. This is stated explicitly inward the edifice of the temple, particularly inward price of the application of ornament, ornaments because at that spot are typically depict a particular world. Figures eg portrayal of celestial creature floating inward the clouds, mythical beasts, Kalpataru tree, relief story reflecting layer specific nature, as well as so on. Before discussing cirri of import Hindu temples, the next listed initiative of all of import Hindu temples inward fundamental Java region. With the listing tin live known a divulge of Hindu temples which the edifice is however standing, although at that spot is no longer complete.

The temples are are:

1. + Group Dieng temple the eighth century Banjarnegara

2. + Group of Songo Temple Gedong the eighth century Ambarawa

3. Temple Mount inward 732 AD Magelang Wukir

4. Temple Pringapus + the ninth century Waterford

5. + Group of Temple Sengi the ninth century Magelang

6. Temple Selagriya + Magelang the ninth century

7. Sambisari temple + the ninth century Sleman

8. Temple Kedulan + the ninth century Sleman

9. Temple Morangan + the ninth century Sleman

10. Barong temple + the ninth century Sleman

11. Ijo Temple + the ninth century Sleman

12. Candi Merak + the tenth century Klaten

13. Lawang temple + the tenth century Boyolali

14. Candi Sari + the tenth century Boyolali

15. Enshrinement Prambanan twelvemonth 856 AD Sleman

Actually at that spot are also Hindu temples runtuhannya living alone, because it tin non live expected to furnish its master total form. For instance inward Waterford Gondosuli Temple, Temple Ngempon inward Ambarawa, as well as Retno Temple inward Magelang. Surely inward the hereafter is predicted to discover other Hindu temples inward Central Java region, particularly around the mount or the mountain, cry upwards at that spot is a potent concept that inward mountainous regions that the gods dwell, so the builders of the temple is expected to constitute many temples inward the plains expanse as well as high mountains.

Based on observations of a divulge of Hindu temples inward Central Java tin live known a divulge of characteristics possessed past times a Hindu temple buildings, namely:

• In the pump of the foundation at that spot are sinks (cistern) a house to shop pendaman
• Pradaksinapatha flooring is non too broad at the edges at that spot is no balustrade (vedika).
• There are 5 niches on the exterior wall, a niche on each side wall as well as 2 small-scale niches on either side of the door (Mahesasuramardini contains statues of Durga, Ganesha, Rsi Agastya, Mahakala, as well as Nandisvara)
• If a edifice complex, it consists of a principal temple are dealing with 3 ancillary temples. Ancillary temples pump contains the statue of Nandi.
• In the pump of the principal bedroom at that spot is a Linga-Yoni, Yoni good nigh upwards booths located on the flooring as well as penetrate the foundation.
• Crow's roof-top dot of the shape of small-scale temples, kemuncaknya ratna-shaped motif.

Similarly, several of import features found on buildings of architectural styles-Saiva Hindu temple located inward fundamental Java. These features tin largely live found inward almost all buildings-Saiva Hindu temples, but some are only found inward 2 buildings, inward add-on to the 2 buildings tin non live found traits that are intended. For instance inward the environs enshrinement Dieng as well as Gedong Songo, every temple is non equipped with 3 ancillary temple inward front end of him, but at that spot is only i edifice is a rectangular diagram, inward such cases etrjadi Arjuno temple contrary the Temple Semar. In the complex at that spot Gedong Songo Songo Temple Gedong II dealing with the construction of the pes of the temple berdenah rectangular, may live a temple formerly perwaranya. Gedong Songo Temple I, genuinely at that spot are no niches on the outside, as well as the visible presence of the residue of the balustrade at the border pradaksinapathanya, so like to the architecture of Buddhist temples. Just because the other temples inward the enshrinement Gedong Songo is breath-Saiva Hindu religion, the temple Gedong Songo I was classified every bit Saiva Hindu temples every bit well.

In the meantime at that spot is also an of import Buddhist temples inward fundamental Java region, temples, at that spot are interesting from the dot of architecture is seen inward add-on to the stupa of Borobudur is minute to none inward the globe anymore. Borobudur Temple is genuinely a combination of shape punden staircase decorated with stupas, stupa at the top pundek every bit if transformed into a crown for a typical staircase punden prehistoric shrine Republic of Indonesia (Wirjosuparto 1964: 53-54). Buddhist temples at that spot that receive got a rectangular flooring invention inward a large size (Sari Temple, Plaosan Lor, as well as Banyunibo), whereas only a small-scale Hindu temple lone (Gedong Songo Temple Semar as well as IIIC). There are also Buddhist temples that are equipped with many ancillary, such every bit Temple Barn, Sewu, Plaosan Lor, as well as Kidal, whereas only the Prambanan Hindu temple are equipped with many ancillary. General description of enshrinement of the Buddha inward fundamental Java, alongside others:

1. Enshrinement Ngawen + Magelang the ninth century

2. + Kalasan the eighth century Sleman

3. Sari Temple (temple prodding) + the eighth century Sleman

4. Borobudur stupa + Magelang the ninth century

5. + Pawon the ninth century Magelang

6. + Mendut the ninth century Magelang

7. Granary enshrinement + the ninth century Sleman

8. Bubrah Temple around the twelvemonth 782 AD Sleman

9. Enshrinement Sewu (Manjusrigrha) inward 792 AD Sleman

10. Enshrinement Plaosan Lor + 10th-century Klaten

11. + Enshrinement South Plaosan the tenth century Klaten

12. Temple Sajiwan + the ninth century Klaten

13. Enshrinement Banyunibo + the ninth century Sleman

14. Stupa + Dawangsari the tenth century Sleman

After discussing several of import Buddhist temple inward fundamental Java region, relative chronology, as well as its location correct now, as well as so consider some of import cirri of Buddhist temples. Named of import because that's characteristic is to a greater extent than oft than non introduce at Buddhist temples, namely:

Important characteristics of a Buddhist temple:

1. The principal temple edifice is surrounded past times ancillary temples inward the vicinity
2. Pradaksinapatha flooring is relatively broad as well as at the edges has a balustrade (vedika)
3. In the trunk of the temple at that spot is a see-through holes every bit if it serves every bit a vent, but at that spot are recesses inward the outer wall
4. Having a stupa-shaped edifice components, particularly inward the roof
5. Equipped with statues that are bauddha
6. In the temple chamber, attached to the nurture wall at that spot is a "stage persajian", to position the statue.
7. Not receive got encountered every bit good inward Hindu temple

In some large temple enshrinement page hardened with a rug of rock blocks, it tin live interpreted that inward the past times never happened rituals that convey upwards a lot of activeness on the page. Thus, if considered carefully at that spot is a divergence betwixt Hindu temples as well as Buddhist Saiva-Mahayana inward the Old Classical fundamental Java. The divergence is what mightiness live called manner or styles, so inward the middle betwixt Java century 80-10 temples built inward 2 styles, the manner of Hindu temple or Buddhist temple style.

R. Soekmono sentiment inward this instance tin live developed further, that the fundamental Javanese temple manner turned out to live divided into 2 again. Actually the 2 styles that receive got experienced symptoms of fusion inward the Prambanan complex, because the characteristics of Hindu as well as Buddhist temples tin live found together inward clusters Prambanan temple. In trace with the sentiment JGde Casparis wedlock finally took house betwixt members of the "family Sanjaya" of Hindu as well as Buddhist Sailendravamsa members. Marriage of 2 families is as well as so realized past times edifice a patterned 2 holy religion, namely Prambanan or Sivagrha enshrinement inward the twelvemonth 856 AD (Sumadio 1984).

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